Negotiating at the table

The Known Unknown :: Poem, Poetry

Man alone stands amazed at man's accomplishments, which are nothing. Had neither a desire we in this world to be conceived Nor we wish to be dead, as we wish to live on On the off chance that our introduction to the world just as death be not of our desire Why in life a desire and for each a conflict? Crying showed up you goodness! Man, individuals grinning around So grinning part from earth, crying individuals sound Gaiety and happiness to your kin your introduction to the world was Lament them let your end, your life an honorable purpose riddle, demise, opens the Creator of universe Still people opine His very presence assorted Camel inconspicuous, passed we guarantee, its impressions in the sand The universe accomplishes for the engravings of God's presence stand Man's information is so wide, his knowledge so thin Molecule to space vanquished yet never tomorrow For an incredible tomorrow, live to take out human distress The mists shed to give us a greener tomorrow

Global Warming And Malaria Example

Global Warming And Malaria Example Global Warming And Malaria â€" Article Example > Globalwarming and malariaContentsENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGESENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGYGlobal WarmingMalariaAbstractIntroductionData CollectionData AnalysisResultsDiscussionConclusionReferences1) Identification of possible climate change scenarios and effect on parameters such as rainfall and temperature. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES The earth is the only living and breathing planet in our solar system. The life of fauna and flora as well the future of the human race would depend upon its health. However, rapid advancements in sciences, industry and nuclear armaments have led to considerable changes in the environment of this beautiful planet. There are many contributing factors that lead to ecological imbalances and environmental degradation. The major causes have been appended as follows: (A) Depletion of Forests The food chain depends upon the vegetation of the earth. Forests are an integral part of the vegetation. Man has cut down the vast forest reserves in the name of industrialisation and rapid urbanisation. Moreover the rural masses depend upon wood from the forests to keep their kitchen fires alive. The loss of forest cover has resulted in an unstable rain fall pattern. There is a reduction in annual rainfall in those areas where forest covers have been depleted. For example, poor or only moderate rain in the National Capital Region during June-September 1999, amply demonstrate that our rainfall patterns are no longer norm as they were a decade ago. Imbalance of proper supply of oxygen adversely affected all the living organisms. Air pollution has increased. Forest covers minimise soil erosion during floods and are also, a natural habitat for wild life. With the reduction in their size, the fertile land as well as wild life has been seriously affected. Several wild life species, like Dodo, have become extinct. The temperature in the forest covers has increased at an alarming rate. If afforestation measures are not taken around the globe, the posterity may hav e to pay heavily in terms of the costs of environmental degradation. (B) Ozone layer Ozone layer surrounds the atmosphere of the earth and protects us from harmful solar radiations. It also protects the earth from over- heating. However, Chloro Flouro Carbons (CFCs), Carbon Monoxide and other gases rise up in the atmosphere and form compounds with Ozone gas. Thus density of Ozone gas is reduced above the surface of the earth in the upper atmosphere. This phenomenon is termed asOzone Hole. This hole allows the harmful ultraviolet rays to pierce through the atmosphere and fall on to the surface of the earth. The earth gets heated up and the living beings are also exposed to these rays. If these unhealthy trends continued, then polar ice caps would melt which would eventually raise the ocean levels. (C)Floods Due to melting of the polar ice caps, the ocean levels would rise. So, low levels areas of the earth would be submerged. There would be small land left for us. For example, low lying areas would be submerged first due to the melting of polar ice caps. (D) Earthquakes If the poles of the earth get heated up due to Ozone holes, the ice would melt and would flow into the oceans. This would result in dangerous imbalances. So, the axis of the earth would shift. This could result in earthquakes. This natural disaster has already affected many nations; India, Iran, Mexico, the USA and China are examples;

The Role of the Media in Influencing Political Attitudes...

The Role of the Media in Influencing Political Attitudes in a Democracy Introduction The public gets political information on their preferred candidates or parties from different people and through the media. In today’s world, social media has also been one of main platforms that shape the public opinion. However, engaging in discussion with other members has proven more informative and persuasive than other methods including social media. Mass media is critical in forming the opinions of the members, and they use the discussions and insights they gather from the media to generate their own ideas and viewpoints (Zaller, 55). The media has experts’ analyses who give opinions based on facts and experience on the matters facing the†¦show more content†¦As a result, people end up using information shortcuts that are a threat to the democracy if the shortcuts are controlled by individuals or firms (Zaller, 93). Individuals or firms may be the media houses and their informants who dictate the information they release and give to the people. If the in formation is poorly managed or the choice of information to be availed to the public is not substantial to form an opinion, it may lead to creating the wrong impression, which becomes a threat to democracy in the long run. Whereas an opinion is based on an argument and information, political opinion is grounded on value judgment about a fact that can be changed by an individual from time to time to either form a moral opinion or an altered opinion (Zaller, 105). In practice, it depends on how people acquire political information, and if it is from the media, individuals may turn out to be susceptible to changing their standpoint. This depends on an individual forming an opinion from their own judgment of the information availed to them and it is not always the case. Zaller adds that people have their true opinions and views about a given matter that they alter from time to time since a change is a natural process (Zaller, 90). According to the author, though a person has formed their own opinion, if the question is asked more than once andShow MoreRelatedExplain The Effects Of Family On Ones Political Values1171 Words   |  5 PagesFundamental Values Describe what a democracy is and why it is significant. A democracy is a system of government where the people have the opportunity to have a say in important governmental processes. For instance, in a democracy, one has the privilege to directly vote on key public officials. This can be seen in presidential elections, state elections, etc. A democracy is significant because it protects the interests of the people, and allows citizens to feel a sense of authority in the nation’sRead More The Role of Business in Foreign Policy Essay1651 Words   |  7 Pagesbusiness-related interests have played a predominant role in influencing foreign policy. Foreign policy determines how America conducts its relations with other countries. It is designed to further certain goals such as security and trade. More importantly foreign policy seeks to ensure America’s security and defense and its ability to protect America’s national interests around the world. National interests that shape foreign policy covers a wide range of politica l, economic, military, ideological, and humanitarianRead MoreThe Theory Of Power And Leadership Ideas1021 Words   |  5 PagesIdeas are beliefs and desires constructed in organized pattern with its creation, components and impact that define the political structure and bind the ruling authority in a set of complying characteristics of that idea. There are unexplained varieties of Ideas - great ideas, scientific and moral ideas, realist and fantastic ideas, political, economic or religious ideas. Democracy, power, freedom and rights, citizenship and protest, social justice and equality are all ideas based on which institutionsRead MoreImpact Of Television On The Western Europe2221 Words   |  9 PagesThe Impact of Television on Democracy in Eastern Europe After the second World War , a large part of central Europe was controlled by the Soviet Union and was forced to adapt to the Communism ideology. While the year 1989 was a turning point that some effective revolution interrupted and the Soviet hegemony was destroyed, the demand for democracy and freedom was increased and people tried to find their ways to speak out. With the development of technology, mass media emerged to help address the problemRead MoreThe Media Regulation Of The Uk1514 Words   |  7 PagesThe media regulation in the U.K. is more extensive compared to the U.S. Ofcom is an independent regulator and competition authority across television, radio etc. The PCC, also an independent body, deals with complaints from members of the public about editorial content of newspaper and magazines. The behavior of media is far more regulated in Britain compared to the U.S. In U.S. the views can complain about the content to individual media outlets but in Britain the complaints are published on variousRead MoreNational Differences in Political Economy1295 Words   |  6 PagesNational Differences in Political Economy Global Political Economy Global political economy (GPE) is an academic discipline within the social sciences that analyzes international relations in combination with political economy. Political economy is most commonly used to refer to interdisciplinary studies that draw on economics, law, and political science in order to explain how political institutions, the political environment, and the economics mix with each other. 1 Roles of History and Culture Read MoreThe And Of Public Broadcasting1287 Words   |  6 Pagesinformation to make better decisions. Whether as a voter, consumer or investor, Americans believe they will be able to form their own idealistic views based on what they see in the media. However, that belief is just a fallacy. In my opinion, viewers that believe this false pretense are unaware that a portion of mass media in the Unites States is privately owned. In both public television and radio, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) funds a portion of their revenue (the CPB is a privateRead MoreThe Relationship Between Social Media Platforms And The Government1517 Words   |  7 Pages This essay explores the different relationships between social media platforms and the government to provide insight into the different ways the government uses media masses to further their agendas and how its good business is used for political gain. This essay also discusses the different ideologies and fallacies individuals have of the media’s role in society. This essay wasn’t written to persuade one either way, but rather to bring the important relationship to light, so with better understandingRead MoreKarl Marx s Theory Of Hegemony Theory Essay1518 Words   |  7 Pages â€Å"By emphasizing a democratic civil society as a context for democratic government, the recovery of nineteenth century democratic theory promises a richer understanding of the role of citizens and an understanding of the relationship between democracy and freedom as human development† (Niemi, 2010, p. 41). This paper will discuss about Karl Marx; in regards to class systems, Antonio Gramsci; how studying Marxist thought assisted with his theory of Hegemony Theory. The centre-periphery model willRead MoreArab Uprising Essay2124 Words   |  9 PagesHow has the rise of social media technologies affected political stabilities in the Middle East? Background of the study Middle East countries have been faced by a challenge where leaders lock information. Locking information has resulted to limitation on the flow of information inside Middle East and to the external world. Out of this challenge, democracy in the Middle East has been suppressed and citizens left to suffer. Leaders refuse to listen to the people they rule and dictatorship followed

William Blake; The schoolboy Essay - 896 Words

William Blake; The schoolboy William Blake believed in freedom of speech, democracy and ‘free love’, for these reasons he disagreed strongly with formal education and conventional teaching in both schools and churches. He believed that this constrained people stopping them from having their own thoughts. Blake believed that children who were not given a formal education would want to learn off their own accord making learning more fun and enjoyable for the child. Blake portrays these opinions in the poem ‘The schoolboy’; which he chose to write in the voice of ‘the schoolboy’ himself, to stand up for children who’s views on schooling are rarely acknowledged. Blake’s decision to use a definite article in the title; ‘The†¦show more content†¦The word ‘sighing’ in the last line of this verse relates it back to the first as it could be referring to the child thinking about what he could be doing instead of school. The third stanza is negative again, showing the way the child feels by describing his body language whilst at school; ‘I drooping sit’, and the line ‘and spend many an anxious hour’ shows how the boy is permanently feeling nervous and in fear whilst at school. Blake then goes on to show the effect this would have on the pupil ‘nor in my book can I take delight, nor sit in learning’s bower’, this demonstrates his theory that school represses the child and stops learning being fun for them. These lines imply that if the boy were not at school he would be choosing to read and learn off his own accord. The fourth stanza marks a change in the poem as the narrative shifts from first to third person. This is where Blake addresses the parents and teachers showing that he unlike most other adults agrees with the children when they say they shouldn’t have to go to school. The way the verse is structured into two rhetorical questions makes th e reader stop and think about the matter in hand. Blake provokes sympathy for the schoolboy by comparing him to a ‘bird that is born for joy’ and saying that sending the boy to school when his natural right is to be free and happy, is as bad asShow MoreRelatedWilliam Blake s Poem The Schoolboy 1551 Words   |  7 PagesMany writers construct natural imagery by deploying figurative language throughout their work. Natural imagery is a prominent feature in the works of William Blake, particularly in his 1789 poem ‘The Schoolboy’ published in the poetry collection ‘Songs of Innocence’. He explores the theme of restriction and how freedom can be found in the natural setting, also demonstrating how human-identity can be influenced by these worlds. Blake’s own perception of restriction due to education, and love of imaginationRead More Compare and contrast The Echoing Green with The Schoolboy by1387 Words   |  6 PagesCompare and contrast The Echoing Green with The Schoolboy by William Blake Both The Echoing Green and The Schoolboy are classed under the section, Songs of Innocence, which at first suggests that they will be of a similar nature. However this presumption is dispelled early on, as one examines the issues behind the often comparable wording. Many elements in The Schoolboy do echo those in The Echoing Green and visa versa, but the atmospheres of each poem that are presented are soRead More An Analysis of Blakes The School Boy Essay1745 Words   |  7 Pagesand imagery. Like many of the other poems in this work it deals with childhood and the subjugation of its spirit and uses imagery from the natural world. While first published in 1789 as one of the Songs of Innocence there are strong reasons why Blake moved it to the Experience1 section of the 1794 edition. If we compare it to other poems in the collection it sits better with others in Experience than those in Innocence. On first reading The School Boy is the voice of a young boy complainingRead More Comparison of the Portrayal of Nature in Blake and Wordsworth1518 Words   |  7 PagesComparison of the Portrayal of Nature in Blake and Wordsworth One of the most popular themes for Romantic poetry in England was nature and an appreciation for natural beauty. The English Romantic poets were generally concerned with the human imagination as a counter to the rise of science. The growing intellectual movement of the 18th and 19th centuries placed scientific thought in the forefront of all knowledge, basing reality in material objects. The Romantics found this form of world viewRead MoreThe Concept of the Individual in Literature of the Romantic Period1762 Words   |  8 Pagesparticular how this was a response to the rationalization of nature and neglect of the individual upheld by the Enlightenment Movement. In order to demonstrate this, a close analysis of some poetic works by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth and William Blake will be examined. The Romantic period placed great importance on creativity, imagination and the value of the self, Wordsworth and Coleridge were particularly influential in Britain with regards to the burgeoning of the movement

Children with Special Needs and How They Interact Free Essays

As numerous people have stated before, â€Å"if you want to understand someone, take a walk in their shoes. â€Å" From this, one is not able to truly comprehend the feelings someone may have or how many difficulties a person endeavors on a day-to-day basis, unless they spend time with them. The topic that I helped research as a group for our senior project was how students with special needs cooperate with others like them, and then how they interact with people in society that do not have these needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Children with Special Needs and How They Interact or any similar topic only for you Order Now While researching this project, I kept one question in mind, what similarities and differences occur with these children when they are brought into these situations with new people. Through our mentor, we were able to interact with the special needs children at our school, one by observing from a distance, not to interfere with how they may regularly go about their school day, and then engaging in the tasks of assisting the students with whichever task they had at hand. Numerous children each year are born with disabilities that classify them with needing certain attention in various areas unlike children who do not have these needs. The statistics show that 1 out of every 5 children born will have some sort of impairment that requires the attention of a specialist in that disability. However, until one has been through the types of activities those children have been, it is quite difficult to learn how it is to have these disabilities, and how socializing with others that they are not familiar with can be altered from how one would normally act around others of the same needs. Most of these children are nervous or shy themselves away from regular students at the school, mostly because they either don’t want to try to make friends with them or that they are too afraid that they might be criticized for how they truly are. When our mentor, Mrs. Rang was interviewed, we asked her a series of questions to try to get a better understanding of how these children are, and what she thought of our idea for a possible senior project. Through this interview, we we’re able to find out numerous things about how things in the classroom work for these students. For instance, when asked how often and when the students interacted with students unlike them at the school, we were given the answer of that the interactions were very limited, these times came during physical education classes, bake sales, and fundraisers. Additionally, we also were informed on how well the children cooperate with each other in the classroom, and it was apparent that there was almost a family-like bond between the children. However, based on research, some children with disabilities have a fear of reaching out to socializing with others. These fears can come about from numerous sources, either through mostly experience or what can be seen or heard through the media. The most powerful source of getting news across the world is through the media, where within the chaos, numerous stories are said to be factual, when only the story is false, and people will only read it if it is intriguing to society. One of these stories includes how children with disabilities are being treated at a certain institute in Canton, Massachusetts, by using shock therapy. Whether or not these reports are true does not matter to the reporters, however if a child with special needs sees this story, it would result in them only wanting to surround themselves with other children that are like them due to the safety they may feel with them. Bullying is another form of socialization that may trigger the child’s abilities to break out of their shell and interact with others. With many children feeling like that they won’t be accepted due to their disabilities, their socialization skills deplete and children become more introverted. However, there are numerous websites and books that are help to assist one with their child’s needs in order for them to benefit from the factors of regular children. Certain aspects like greeting a new person everyday will allow them to not be intimidated by the children that are not like them. With proper guidance and support, these children with disabilities can be able to interact with other children unlike them in a comfortable environment. Furthermore, it has been seen in many instants where children with disabilities are able to interact with similar children with ease than to that of others. A variety of reasons can be held accountable for this explanation, such as how much time is spent with comparable children, and the emotions that are felt during these time periods. For example, during our interview, our mentor was able to inform us on how caring the children are for one another, which I feel takes into account where they spend the majority of their day in school together, and those students are the children that they interact with almost everyday. Additionally, many will say that the more time you spend with a person, the more you get to know them and care for them, which is proof with these children. Some however, may not want to branch out and socialize with other children, which even though I feel these students would benefit from the experience, people can not be pressured into something they are not comfortable doing. When doing this sort of project, there are certain risks and learning experiences that come with the opportunity we were presented with. In order to fully commit myself to this project, a certain level of commitment and connection had to be made with the task at hand. Before this project was assigned, I had volunteered time at the Nursing Home where there are numerous patients with disabilities that after listening to their stories, had numerous troubles growing up. It was evident that just like the children now, some wanted to socialize with others, while some rather stay locked up in their rooms all day in a groggy mood. As a result, it inspired me to find out why people with disabilities are sometimes stubborn to interact with others, while still establishing friendships with those who desired companionship in the home, especially those who made connections with others who had similar disabilities. Due to the level of this project, there were also numerous risks and successions that are related to the action of the assignment. After discussing that the group desired to work with the special needs children in Mrs. R Mr. Dami’s class, we knew that we did not want the students to feel like they were just an assignment, where they would only be talked to for a month or two, and then once the class was over, the connection that was made would slowly disappear. If that was the case, no one would benefit from this project, I knew that we had to make sure that we got to know the students, how their personalities were, what their interests are, and other such aspects. The risk being taken was that when going into this project, we were not aware of how the students might feel with us being in their classroom. Being uncomfortable in a safe environment is one of the factors that we as a group wanted to make sure would not happen, however studying their behavior with others would allow us to benefit for the task at hand. Success would be able to be achieved, only if our interactions were carried out properly. From this, our success would be finding out the difference between the socialization that children with disabilities use when they are surrounded with different people. Moreover, failure would also be expected when we were spending time with the children because as Benjamin Disraeli once said, â€Å" All my successes have been built on my failures†. From this, we were not expecting perfection the first time we met the children, but hopefully, a bond would slowly start to form between us and eventually they would become more comfortable to talk to us when they ever saw in the hallways or during lunches. This is able to relate to civics, where from our education throughout the years in socializing with others, not bullying, and always making other feel welcome, we are able to take the lessons that we have already learned, and apply them to the task at hand and hopefully make new friends along the way. The experiences that I have had so far have been very beneficial to not only me, but my group as a whole. We were able to discover that some of the children with special needs wanted friends, but were too afraid to due to lack of socializing when they were younger. On another note, some children were able to talk to anyone that was willing to listen, while others unfortunately did not wish to make new friends than the ones that they already had currently in the classroom. Different personalities were able to shine through while we visited the students during different blocks, and friendships were able to begin being built. However, more information on why parents and others do not try to socialize their children with disabilities would be helpful when working on this project, however, the best is being made with the research we have. Throughout the experience however, it reminded me of being with the patients at the nursing home, as if those patients younger selves were able to interact with me now, and it was able to give my more insight into their everyday lives, even though I may not have been able to walk a mile in them. To end off though with these friendships and the positive effects they will hopefully have on these children, as Francis Bacon once stated, â€Å"This communicating of a man’s self to his friend works two contrary effects; for it redoubleth joys, and cutteth grief’s in half†. Where joy is able to be experienced by those who enjoy the companionship of a good friend, and the grief they may have suffered is no longer that big of a burden for them to handle. How to cite Children with Special Needs and How They Interact, Essay examples

Intercultural Competence free essay sample

However, a difficulty confronting education professionals in fulfilling this responsibility is the bewildering array of conceptualisations of intercultural competence that are currently available. Over the past twenty years or so, there has been a proliferation of different models of intercultural competence across the social sciences, in disciplines as diverse as management, health care, counselling, social work, psychology and education. These various models have recently been reviewed by Spitzberg and Changnon (2009), who classify them into five types: (1) Compositional models, which identify the various components of intercultural competence without attempting to specify the relations between them – these models therefore simply contain lists of the relevant attitudes, skills, knowledge and behaviours which together make up intercultural competence. 2) Co-orientational models, which focus on how communication takes place within intercultural interactions, and how perceptions, meanings and intercultural understandings are constructed during the course of these interactions. (3) Developmental models, which describe the stages of development through which intercultural competence is acquired. We will write a custom essay sample on Intercultural Competence or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (4) Adaptational models, which focus on how individuals adjust and adapt their attitudes, understandings and behaviours during encounters with cultural others. 5) Causal path models, which postulate specific causal relationships between the different components of intercultural competence. In their review, Spitzberg and Changnon observe that many of the terms used to describe intercultural competence in all five types of model (e. g. , adaptability, sensitivity, etc. ) have not yet been properly operationalised or validated in empirical research, and that many of the models may well have ethnocentric biases due to the fact that they have been developed within western European and North American societies and probably lack cross-cultural generalizability. Certainly, most of the models reviewed by Spitzberg and Changnon are underdetermined by the available evidence: they contain many speculative elements and, when they have been subjected to empirical examination, are typically tested in very restricted situations with limited numbers of participants drawn from only a small range of cultures or sometimes only a single culture. Compositional models make the fewest assumptions concerning the nature of intercultural competence, as they modestly attempt only to identify the various attitudes, skills, knowledge and behaviours which together make up intercultural competence, without speculating about the interconnections, casual pathways or developmental interdependencies between them. Interestingly, and despite the large number of models of intercultural competence, there is considerable consensus among researchers and intercultural professionals concerning the components that comprise intercultural competence. For example, Deardorff (2006), in a survey which collected data from scholars of intercultural competence and university international administrators, found that 80% or more of the respondents agreed about 22 of the core components of intercultural competence. Deardorff also found substantial agreement over the definition of the term intercultural competence. The definition which was endorsed the most strongly by the scholars was â€Å"the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes† (where the term effectively means that one is able to achieve one’s objectives in these interactions, and the term appropriately means that the interactions do not violate the cultural rules and norms which are valued by oneself and by one’s interlocutors). So what are the core components of intercultural competence? Drawing on the range of research that has been conducted in this field, and the numerous conceptual models that have been proposed, it is possible to argue that all of the following components form the core of intercultural competence: ? Attitudes: respect for other cultures; curiosity about other cultures; willingness to learn about other cultures; openness to people from other cultures; willingness to suspend judgement; willingness to tolerate ambiguity; and valuing cultural diversity. Skills: skills of listening to people from other cultures; skills of interacting with people from other cultures; skills of adapting to other cultural environments; linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse skills, including skills in managing breakdowns in communication; skills in mediating intercultural exchanges; skills in discovering information about other cultures; skills of interpreting cultures and relating cultures to one another; empathy; multiperspectivity; cognitive flexibility; and skills in critically evaluating cultural perspectives, practices and products, including those of one’s own culture. Knowledge: cultural self-awareness; communicative awareness, especially of the different linguistic and communicative conventions within different cultures; culturespecific knowledge, especially knowledge of the perspectives, practices and products of particular cultural groups; and general cultural knowledge, especially knowledge of processes of cultural, societal and individual interaction. Behaviours: behaving and communicating effectively and appropriately during intercultural encounters; flexibility in cultural behaviour; flexibility in communicative behaviour; and having an action orientation, that is, a disposition for action in society in order to enhance the common good, especially through the reduction of prejudice, discrimination and conflict The relationship between these various attitudes, ski lls, knowledge and behaviours which together comprise intercultural competence has not yet been established. This is a matter for empirical investigation rather than a priori theorising, and there is a very large research agenda which needs to be addressed here. Questions which still need to be answered include: ? How does each of these components develop within the individual learner? ? What are the social, educational, cognitive and motivational factors which influence the acquisition of each component? ? Are there particular sequences in which the various components are acquired? ? Is the acquisition of some components a necessary prerequisite for the acquisition of other components? How are the different components cognitively and affectively inter-related? 3 ? To what extent does the development of intercultural competence vary depending on the specific cultural setting in which an individual lives, and the specific intercultural encounters which an individual experiences within that setting? That said, there is existing research evidence to support all of the following conclusions abo ut the development of intercultural competence: ? Intercultural competence can be enhanced through intercultural education and training (e. g. Klak Martin, 2003; Pascarella, Edison, Nora, Hagedorn Terenzini, 1996). ? Intercultural competence can also be enhanced through a range of intercultural experiences, for example by attending international schools, attending multi-ethnic institutions which have a non-discriminatory environment, or by having extensive contact with people from other countries (e. g. , Pascarella et al. 1996; Straffon, 2003; Zhai Scheer, 2004). ? Females, older individuals and minority individuals tend to have higher levels of intercultural competence than males, younger individuals and majority individuals, respectively (e. . , Pascarella et al. 1996; Zhai Scheer, 2004). ? Intercultural competence may be related to holding a more global, international perspective and lower levels of ethnocentrism (e. g. , Caligiuri, Jacobs Farr, 2000). ? Some individual and personality characteristics such as optimism, openness and extraversion may also be related to higher levels of intercultural competence (e. g. , Caligiuri et al. , 2000). ? Advanced proficiency in one or more foreign languages is also sometimes related to higher levels of intercultural competence (e. . , Olson Kroeger, 2001). Given the known impact of intercultural education on intercultural competence, and the Council of Europe’s call for teachers to take on a more central role in fostering the intercultural competence of learners, there is clearly a need for the development of educational tools and materials which can be used within educational settings to help teachers achieve this goal. The Council of Europe itself has already developed a number of toolkits and materials that ay be used towards this end, such as the Intercultural Learning T-Kit and the All Different All Equal Education Pack. These contain a large range of activities, methods and resources that can be u sed to enhance students’ intercultural competence. A further instrument that has recently been developed by the Council of Europe is the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters (AIE), which is based on an explicit compositional model of intercultural competence derived from the work of Byram (1997) and the INCA project (2004). The AIE aims to foster the development of a number of components of intercultural competence (including respect for otherness, empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, behavioural flexibility, communicative awareness, skills of interpreting and relating, and critical cultural awareness) by supporting learners’ critical reflection on encounters with people from other cultures which they themselves have personally experienced. In addition, a companion tool, the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media, is currently under development – this new tool is being designed to assist learners to reflect critically on specific images depicting people from other cultures which they have encountered in the media (for example, on television, in a film, on the Internet, etc. ). While all of these instruments make an important contribution to the range of materials that teachers can use for enhancing the intercultural competence of their students, there is a need for further materials to be developed, especially materials tailored specifically to the circumstances and requirements of the particular cultural settings in which students live. However, all such materials need to be formally evaluated for their effectiveness in actually bringing about change in learners. It is one thing to develop activities, methods and resources which both teachers and learners find satisfying to use within the classroom, but another to show that these actually bring about the desired developmental changes in learners. Thus, a further challenge for future research is the evaluation, using methodologically sound procedures, of the different materials which are available to teachers in the area of intercultural education. Given the significance of the intercultural approach for contemporary European societies, it is crucial that the choice of educational means is based on robust evidence concerning their effectiveness. Some Council of Europe resources for intercultural education Brander, P. , Cardenas, C. , de Vicente Abad, J. , Gomes, R. Taylor, M. (2004). All Different All Equal Education Pack Idea, Resources, Methods and Activities for Informal Intercultural Education with Young People and Adults (2nd edition). Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe Publishing. Byram, M. , Barrett, M. , Ipgrave, J. , Jackson, R. Mendez Garcia, M. C. (2009). Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe Publishing. Martinelli, S. Taylor, M. (Eds. ) (2000). Intercultural Learning T-Kit. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe Publishing. References Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Caligiuri, P. M. , Jacobs, R. R. Farr, J. L. (2000). The Attitudinal and Behavioral Openness Scale: Scale development and construct validation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24, 27-46. Council of Europe (2008). White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue. Strasbourg, France: Committee of Ministers, Council of Europe. Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10, 241-266. INCA project (2004). http://www. incaproject. org/ Klak, T. Martin, P. 2003). Do university-sponsored international cultural events help students to appreciate ‘‘difference’’? International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 445–465. Olson, C. L. Kroeger, K. R. (2001). Global competency and intercultural sensitivity. Journal of Studies in International Education, 5, 116-137. Pascarella, E. T. , Ediso n, M. , Nora, A. , Hagedorn, L. S. , Terenzini, P. T. (1996). Influences on students openness to diversity and challenge in the first year of college. The Journal of Higher Education, 67, 174-195. Spitzberg, B. H. Changnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercultural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed. ), The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence (pp. 2-52). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Straffon, D. A. (2003). Assessing the intercultural sensitivity of high school students attending an international school. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 487-501. 5 Zhai, L. Scheer, S. D. (2004). Global perspectives and attitudes toward cultural diversity among summer agriculture students at the Ohio State University. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45, 39-51. About the contributor Martyn Barrett is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology at the University of Surrey, UK. He is a developmental and social psychologist but has a strong commitment to multidisciplinary research, and he is currently working with political scientists, anthropologists, sociologists, policy analysts and educationists. He works on processes of national and ethnic enculturation, the development of prejudice and stereotyping, the identifications and cultural practices of ethnic minority and mixed-heritage individuals, the development of the intercultural competences which are required for successful intercultural dialogue, and the development of political cognition, attitudes and active citizenship. He is currently leading an FP7 project funded by the European Commission entitled Processes Influencing Democratic Ownership and Participation (PIDOP), which is running from 2009-2012. He is also working as an expert advisor to the Council of Europe. He is Academic Director of the multidisciplinary Centre for Research on Nationalism, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism (CRONEM) at the University of Surrey, and an Academician of the Social Sciences. Contact: m. [emailprotected] ac. uk URL: http://www. surrey. ac. uk/psychology/people/prof_martyn_barrett/